Considering these multiple aspects of robustness and resilience requires attention to the related concepts of resistance, recovery, and irreversibility, as developed in the article by Palumbi and colleagues (2008). Email address for updates. Coastal wetlands store organic carbon in underlying sediments for millennia and account for almost 50% of carbon storage in ocean sediments despite occupying only 0.2% of ocean area (38). EBM explicitly considers the interdependence of all ecosystem components, including species both human and nonhuman, and the environments in which they live. It is little surprise, then, that present-day societies tend to take many of these natural services for granted (Daily 1997, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005a, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c, 2006d, 2006e), even while the support systems that provide the services are being severely degraded (Vitousek et al. Grünbaum

Changes in biogeochemical cycles are expected under climate change, with the likelihood that the carbon capture and storage potential of the oceans may decline (112). 1. MPAs with five key characteristics [no-take, well-enforced, well-established (≥10 y old), large (≥100 km2), and isolated] have been shown to produce the greatest conservation benefits (10), and the effectiveness of MPAs in supporting climate change mitigation and adaptation will be contingent, in part, on these factors. The articles in this special section of BioScience provide guidance about EBM by using the concepts of resilience and robustness as a lens for thinking about complex dynamic systems. Edited by B. L. Turner, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, and approved May 8, 2017 (received for review January 30, 2017). Strong decreases in greenhouse gas emissions are required to meet the reduction trajectory resolved within the 2015 Paris Agreement.

Search for other works by this author on: Ecological futures: Building an ecology of the long now, World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-by-Commodity Guide to Impacts and Practices, Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems, Degeneracy and complexity in biological systems, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Extinction: The Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species, Extinction, substitution, and ecosystem services, Icarus and Daedalus: Conceptual and tactical lessons from marine ecosystem-based management, New tools to meet new challenges: Emerging technologies for managing marine ecosystems for resilience, Resilience and stability of ecological systems, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems, From Sea to Shining Sea: Priorities for Ocean Policy Reform, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Ecosystems and the biosphere as complex adaptive systems, Fragile Dominion: Complexity and the Commons, Complex adaptive systems: Exploring the known, the unknown and the unknowable, Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, Entering the century of the environment: A new social contract for science, Stability and Complexity in Model Ecosystems, Scientific Consensus Statement on Marine Ecosystem-based Management, Indirect effects in marine intertidal interaction webs: Patterns and importance, Experimental separation of effects of consumers on sessile prey in the low zone of a rocky shore in the Bay of Panama: Direct and indirect consequences of food web complexity, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Opportunities and Challenges for Business and Industry, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Scenarios, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Policy Responses, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Multiscale Assessments, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Our Human Planet: Summary for Decision-makers, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Current State and Trends, Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities, Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: Empirical evidence from experimental microcosms, Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms, Food webs: Linkage, interaction strength and community infrastructure, The third Tansley lecture.

More generally, the nature of the topological web of trophic and other ecological interactions has always fascinated ecologists (Paine 1980, Pimm 1982, Cohen 1989, Menge 1995). SL While maintaining a constructive and clear view of these limitations of MPAs, in the remainder of this paper we explore the potential strengths and weaknesses of well-managed marine reserves in climate change adaptation and mitigation based on documented responses of marine ecosystems to protection. Here we consider how the act of protection itself may enhance the biological processes that underpin adaptation and resilience, for the benefit of both the protected ecosystem and the people that depend on it. Gaines Thermal expansion and increased meltwater and discharged ice from terrestrial ice caps have increased the ocean volume and sea level (6). For management, this means in part asking how the reward structure to individuals can be modified in ways to encourage behaviors that are in the common good. PR Rohani Fish continuously excrete, via their gills, ammonia/ammonium, the most bioavailable forms of nitrogen, at very high rates [e.g., 100-fold greater than benthic bivalves (89)]. Keller

SA 36 and 37). She co-founded three organizations that train scientists to be better communicators and engage more effectively with the public, policy makers, media and industry. . Reserves also promote genetic diversity by increasing population sizes and broadening the selective environment (e.g., ref. Modularity refers to the compartmentalization of the system in space, in time, or in organizational structure.

Dr. Lubchenco received a B.A. Effects are already visible in the Pacific and Atlantic, where the extent of nutrient-poor “ocean deserts” increased by 15% between 1998 and 2006 (6). Lubchenco Most of the ocean is already experiencing multiple anthropogenic drivers (91), the effects of which can be seen in all ecosystems from coasts to the open ocean and deep sea (38, 92⇓⇓–95). Any discussion about the future application and expanded value of MPAs must recognize the rich, constructive, and fast-growing literature examining the weaknesses and limitations of MPAs. Simon A. Levin (e-mail: slevin@princeton.edu) is George M. Moffett Professor of Biology and director of the Center for BioComplexity in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey.
1998, 2002, Myers and Worm 2003, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2006f, 2006g, Worm et al. RA The protection of coastal habitats in marine reserves often offers a more cost-effective solution than habitat restoration or engineering solutions (50).

As anthropogenic stresses increase, such portfolio approaches to management are prudent. is supported by the Natural Environment Research Council and Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council in the United Kingdom. Similarly, achieving robustness typically requires the maintenance of sufficient variability at the level of the system's components, so that natural and other forms of selection can operate. An interesting example of the role of marine reserves in buffering this change is seen in Baja California, Mexico, which is experiencing more frequent putatively climate-driven hypoxic episodes. Thompson

96). 1). Rosenberg

Intact coastal wetlands, mudflats, and biogenic reefs offer protection against rises in sea level (38), leading to increasing momentum for ecosystem-based adaptation to safeguard people, infrastructure, and property against adverse climate change impacts (e.g., ref.

Lubchenco


Acidity is expected to increase by 100% or more by 2100 under a business-as-usual scenario (5). 48). Marine reserves are not the only means of protecting these habitats, but they can maintain and enhance these spatially connected ecosystems, preventing the release of carbon stored in sediments and perturbations from direct anthropogenic disturbance.

Most scientific projections indicate that impacts will continue to intensify for at least another half century before the effects of emissions reductions may begin to be felt (4). EBM for the oceans is the application of ecological principles to achieve integrated management of key activities affecting the marine environment. Jr We contend that, because marine reserves limit direct pressures, they will give ecological communities the best chance to develop and adapt to changing conditions in ways that maintain ecological function and structure. The services, which vary according to the ecosystem, result from the interactions among the plants, animals, and microbes and their physical environment. Studies that focus on the densities of individual species find that more diverse assemblages are less stable by this definition (May 1972, 1973, Tilman and Downing 1994, Naeem et al. SD The average global sea level has risen by 19 cm since 1900, and the IPCC predicts further rises of up to 82 cm by 2100 (5), with multiple associated impacts on coastal people (47). Fisheries and other resource systems have declined drastically (Pauly et al.